farm families. Wood presses featuring intricate decoration were used to press the butter into pucks or small bricks to be sold at a nearby market or general store with the decoration identifying the farm which produced the butter. This continued until production was mechanized and butter was produced in less decorative stick form.[31] Today butter presses continue to be used for decorative purposes.
Per capita butter consumption declined in most western nations during the 20th century, in large part because of the rising popularity of margarine, which is less expensive and, until recent years, was perceived as being healthier. In the United States, margarine consumption overtook butter during the 1950s,[32] and it is still the case today that more margarine than butter is eaten in the U.S. and the EU.[33]
Size and shape of butter packaging[edit]
In the United States, butter is usually produced in 4-ounce sticks, wrapped in waxed or foiled paper and sold four to a one-pound carton. This practice is believed to have originated in 1907, when Swift and Company began packaging butter in this manner for mass distribution.[34]
Western-pack shape butter
PCC Dairy Butter, made from Philippines' water buffalo's cream milk. (Philippine Carabao Center)
These sticks are commonly produced in two different shapes:
The dominant shape east of the Rocky Mountains is the Elgin, or Eastern-pack shape, named for a dairy in Elgin, Illinois. The sticks are 121 millimetres (4.8 in) long and 32 millimetres (1.3 in) wide and are typically sold stacked two by two in elongated cube-shaped boxes.[35]
West of the Rocky Mountains, butter printers standardized on a different shape that is now referred to as the Western-pack shape. These butter sticks are 80 millimetres (3.1 in) long and 38 millimetres (1.5 in) wide and are usually sold with four sticks packed side-by-side in a flat, rectangular box.[35] The shape was altered for the West Coast because of the higher average temperature; having a smaller surface-area-to-volume ratio allowed the stick of butter to remain on the counter longer without melting.[36]
Both sticks contain the same amount of butter, although most butter dishes are designed for Elgin-style butter sticks.[35]
The stick's wrapper is usually marked off as eight tablespoons (120 ml or 4.2 imp fl oz; 4.1 US fl oz); the actual volume of one stick is approximately nine tablespoons (130 ml or 4.6 imp fl oz; 4.4 US fl oz).
Outside of the United States, butter is packaged and sold by weight only, not by volume (fluid measure) nor by unit (stick), but the package shape remains approximately the same. The wrapper is usually a foil and waxed-paper laminate (the waxed paper is now a siliconised substitute, but is still referred to in some places as parchment, from the wrapping used in past centuries; and the term 'parchment-wrapped' is still employed where the paper alone is used, without the foil laminate).
Friday, December 13, 2013
ce that Emperor Napoleon III offered prize money for an inexpensive substitute to supplement France's inadequate butter supplies. A French chemist claimed the prize with the invention of margarine in 1869. The first margarine was beef tallow flavored with milk and worked like butter; vegeta
e common fare among the middle class, and the English, in particular, gained a reputation for their liberal use of melted butter as a sauce with meat and vegetables.[21]
In antiquity, butter was used for fuel in lamps as a substitute for oil. The Butter Tower of Rouen Cathedral was erected in the early 16th century when Archbishop Georges d'Amboise authorized the burning of butter instead of oil, which was scarce at the time, during Lent.[22]
Across northern Europe, butter was sometimes treated in a manner unheard-of today: it was packed into barrels (firkins) and buried in peat bogs, perhaps for years. Such "bog butter" would develop a strong flavor as it aged, but remain edible, in large part because of the unique cool, airless, antiseptic and acidic environment of a peat bog. Firkins of such buried butter are a common archaeological find in Ireland; the Irish National Museum has some containing "a grayish cheese-like substance, partially hardened, not much like butter, and quite free from putrefaction." The practice was most common in Ireland in the 11th–14th centuries; it ended entirely before the 19th century.[20]
Industrialization[edit]
Like Ireland, France became well known for its butter, particularly in Normandy and Brittany. By the 1860s, butter had become so in demand in France that Emperor Napoleon III offered prize money for an inexpensive substitute to supplement France's inadequate butter supplies. A French chemist claimed the prize with the invention of margarine in 1869. The first margarine was beef tallow flavored with milk and worked like butter; vegetable margarine followed after the development of hydrogenated oils around 1900.
Gustaf de Laval's centrifugal cream separator sped the butter-making process.
Until the 19th century, the vast majority of butter was made by hand, on farms. The first butter factories appeared in the United States in the early 1860s, after the successful introduction of cheese factories a decade earlier. In the late 1870s, the centrifugal cream separator was introduced, marketed most successfully by Swedish engineer Carl Gustaf Patrik de Laval.[23] This dramatically sped up the butter-making process by eliminating the slow step of letting cream naturally rise to the top of milk. Initially, whole milk was shipped to the butter factories, and the cream separation took place there. Soon, though, cream-separation technology became small and inexpensive enough to introduce an additional efficiency: the separation was accomplished on the farm, and the cream alone shipped to the factory. By 1900, more than half the butter produced in the United States was factory made; Europe followed suit shortly after.
In 1920, Otto Hunziker authored The Butter Industry, Prepared for Factory, School and Laboratory,[24] a well-known text in the industry that enjoyed at least three editions (1920, 1927, 1940). As part of the efforts of the American Dairy Science Association, Professor Hunziker and others published articles regarding: causes of tallowiness[25] (an odor defect, distinct from rancidity, a taste defect); mottles[26] (an aesthetic issue related to uneven color); introduced salts;[27] the impact of creamery metals[28] and liquids;[29] and acidity measurement.[30] These and other ADSA publications helped standardize practices internationally.
Butter also served as a source of extra income for
In antiquity, butter was used for fuel in lamps as a substitute for oil. The Butter Tower of Rouen Cathedral was erected in the early 16th century when Archbishop Georges d'Amboise authorized the burning of butter instead of oil, which was scarce at the time, during Lent.[22]
Across northern Europe, butter was sometimes treated in a manner unheard-of today: it was packed into barrels (firkins) and buried in peat bogs, perhaps for years. Such "bog butter" would develop a strong flavor as it aged, but remain edible, in large part because of the unique cool, airless, antiseptic and acidic environment of a peat bog. Firkins of such buried butter are a common archaeological find in Ireland; the Irish National Museum has some containing "a grayish cheese-like substance, partially hardened, not much like butter, and quite free from putrefaction." The practice was most common in Ireland in the 11th–14th centuries; it ended entirely before the 19th century.[20]
Industrialization[edit]
Like Ireland, France became well known for its butter, particularly in Normandy and Brittany. By the 1860s, butter had become so in demand in France that Emperor Napoleon III offered prize money for an inexpensive substitute to supplement France's inadequate butter supplies. A French chemist claimed the prize with the invention of margarine in 1869. The first margarine was beef tallow flavored with milk and worked like butter; vegetable margarine followed after the development of hydrogenated oils around 1900.
Gustaf de Laval's centrifugal cream separator sped the butter-making process.
Until the 19th century, the vast majority of butter was made by hand, on farms. The first butter factories appeared in the United States in the early 1860s, after the successful introduction of cheese factories a decade earlier. In the late 1870s, the centrifugal cream separator was introduced, marketed most successfully by Swedish engineer Carl Gustaf Patrik de Laval.[23] This dramatically sped up the butter-making process by eliminating the slow step of letting cream naturally rise to the top of milk. Initially, whole milk was shipped to the butter factories, and the cream separation took place there. Soon, though, cream-separation technology became small and inexpensive enough to introduce an additional efficiency: the separation was accomplished on the farm, and the cream alone shipped to the factory. By 1900, more than half the butter produced in the United States was factory made; Europe followed suit shortly after.
In 1920, Otto Hunziker authored The Butter Industry, Prepared for Factory, School and Laboratory,[24] a well-known text in the industry that enjoyed at least three editions (1920, 1927, 1940). As part of the efforts of the American Dairy Science Association, Professor Hunziker and others published articles regarding: causes of tallowiness[25] (an odor defect, distinct from rancidity, a taste defect); mottles[26] (an aesthetic issue related to uneven color); introduced salts;[27] the impact of creamery metals[28] and liquids;[29] and acidity measurement.[30] These and other ADSA publications helped standardize practices internationally.
Butter also served as a source of extra income for
Production[edit] Main article: Churning (butter)
1 Etymology
2 Production
aps this is a false etymology of a Scythian word.[7] Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the second stem, turos ("cheese"), is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro, written in Linear B syllabic script.[8] The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a compound found in rancid butter and dairy products such as Parmesan cheese.
In general use, the term "butter" refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed & nut products such as peanut butter and almond butter. It is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as cocoa butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as "butters". In addition to the act of applying butter being called "to butter", non-dairy items that have a dairy butter consistency may use "butter' to call that consistency to mind, including food items such as maple butter and witch's butter and nonfood items such as baby bottom butter, hyena butter, and rock butter.
Production[edit]
Main article: Churning (butter)
Churning cream into butter using a hand held mixer.
Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules. These globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids (fatty acid emulsifiers) and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, separating from the other parts of the cream. Variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three separate forms: free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules. In the finished product, different proportions of these forms result in different consistencies within the butter; butters with many crystals are harder than butters dominated by free fats.
Almost all commercially-made butter today begins with pasteurized cream, which is commonly heated to a relatively high temperature above 80 °C (180 °F). Before it is churned, the cream is cooled to about 5 °C (40 °F) and allowed to remain at that temperature for at least eight hours; under these conditions about half the butterfat in the cream crystallizes. The jagged crystals of fat inflict damage upon the fat globule membranes during churning, speeding the butter-making process.
Churning produces small butter grains floating in the water-based portion of the cream. This watery liquid is called buttermilk—although the buttermilk most common today is instead a directly fermented skimmed milk. The buttermilk is drained off; sometimes more buttermilk is removed by rinsing the grains with water. Then the grains are "worked": pressed and kneaded together. When prepared manually, this is done using wooden boards called scotch hands. This consolidates the butter into a solid mass and breaks up embedded pockets of buttermilk or water3 Types
Tuesday, August 20, 2013
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)
on the other hand, was annexed by force of arms in 1598 by Pope Clement VIII, on grounds of the heir's illegitimacy, and incorporated into the Papal States.
The last duke, Ercole III, was deposed in 1796 by the French and his two duchies became the Cispadane Republic which one year later was merged into the Cisalpine Republic and then into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Ercole was compensated in 1801 with the small principality of Breisgau in southwestern Germany, whose previous rulers, the Habsburgs, ceded it to him in anticipation of its eventual return to the Habsburgs, since Ercole's daughter Maria Beatrice Ricciarda d'Este was married to a cadet Habsburg, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este. Ercole died in 1803 and Breisgau passed to his daughter and her husband, who then (1806) lost it during the Napoleonic reorganization of the western territories of the defunct Holy Roman Empire to the enlarged and elevated Grand Duchy of Baden.
Castello Estense in Ferrara
Ducal Palace in Modena, built in 1634 by Francesco I. d’Este
Austria-Este and the House of Habsburg[edit]
Main article: Austria-Este
In 1814, when French rule in Italy ended (but after the death of Duke Ercole), Modena was returned to his daughter Mary Beatrice and her son, Archduke Francis of Austria-Este. The family thus ruled the duchy of Modena and Reggio again from 1814 to 1859, using the names Asburgo-Este (Habsburg-Este) and Austria-Este. In 1859 the duchy lost its independence to the new united Italy, and Francis V, Duke of Modena, was deposed.
Ercole III was the last Este duke of Modena and Reggio.
The family of Austria-Este became extinct in the male line with the death of Francis V in 1875. His blood-heiress was his niece, Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria-Este (d. 1919); she and her husband, Prince Louis of Bavaria, later became Queen and KChamber of commerce
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Chamber of Commerce)
This article is about trade organisations globally. For the American business lobbying organization, see United States Chamber of Commerce.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)
Former Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York
A chamber of commerce (also referred to in some circles as a board of trade) is a form of business network, e.g., a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to advocate on behalf of the business community. Local businesses are members, and they elect a board of directors or executive council to set policy for the chamber. The board or council then hires a President, CEO or Executive Director, plus staffing appropriate to size, to run the organization.
The first chamber of commerce was founded in 1599 in Marseille, France.[1][2][3][4] It would be followed 65 years later by another official chamber of commerce, probably in Brugge, then part of the Spanish Netherlands.[5]
The world's oldest English-speaking chamber of commerce is that of New York City, which was established in 1768.[6] The oldest known existing chamber in the English-speaking world with continuous records is the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce,[7] which was founded in 1783. However, Hull Chamber of Commerce[8] is the UK's oldest, followed by Leeds and Belfast, Northern Ireland.[citation needed]
A chamber of commerce is not a governmental body or institution, and has no direct role in the writing and passage of laws and regulations that affect businesses. It may however, act as a lobby in an attempt to get laws passed that are favorable to businesses.
Contents [hide]
1 Characteristics
The last duke, Ercole III, was deposed in 1796 by the French and his two duchies became the Cispadane Republic which one year later was merged into the Cisalpine Republic and then into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Ercole was compensated in 1801 with the small principality of Breisgau in southwestern Germany, whose previous rulers, the Habsburgs, ceded it to him in anticipation of its eventual return to the Habsburgs, since Ercole's daughter Maria Beatrice Ricciarda d'Este was married to a cadet Habsburg, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este. Ercole died in 1803 and Breisgau passed to his daughter and her husband, who then (1806) lost it during the Napoleonic reorganization of the western territories of the defunct Holy Roman Empire to the enlarged and elevated Grand Duchy of Baden.
Castello Estense in Ferrara
Ducal Palace in Modena, built in 1634 by Francesco I. d’Este
Austria-Este and the House of Habsburg[edit]
Main article: Austria-Este
In 1814, when French rule in Italy ended (but after the death of Duke Ercole), Modena was returned to his daughter Mary Beatrice and her son, Archduke Francis of Austria-Este. The family thus ruled the duchy of Modena and Reggio again from 1814 to 1859, using the names Asburgo-Este (Habsburg-Este) and Austria-Este. In 1859 the duchy lost its independence to the new united Italy, and Francis V, Duke of Modena, was deposed.
Ercole III was the last Este duke of Modena and Reggio.
The family of Austria-Este became extinct in the male line with the death of Francis V in 1875. His blood-heiress was his niece, Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria-Este (d. 1919); she and her husband, Prince Louis of Bavaria, later became Queen and KChamber of commerce
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Chamber of Commerce)
This article is about trade organisations globally. For the American business lobbying organization, see United States Chamber of Commerce.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)
Former Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York
A chamber of commerce (also referred to in some circles as a board of trade) is a form of business network, e.g., a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to advocate on behalf of the business community. Local businesses are members, and they elect a board of directors or executive council to set policy for the chamber. The board or council then hires a President, CEO or Executive Director, plus staffing appropriate to size, to run the organization.
The first chamber of commerce was founded in 1599 in Marseille, France.[1][2][3][4] It would be followed 65 years later by another official chamber of commerce, probably in Brugge, then part of the Spanish Netherlands.[5]
The world's oldest English-speaking chamber of commerce is that of New York City, which was established in 1768.[6] The oldest known existing chamber in the English-speaking world with continuous records is the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce,[7] which was founded in 1783. However, Hull Chamber of Commerce[8] is the UK's oldest, followed by Leeds and Belfast, Northern Ireland.[citation needed]
A chamber of commerce is not a governmental body or institution, and has no direct role in the writing and passage of laws and regulations that affect businesses. It may however, act as a lobby in an attempt to get laws passed that are favorable to businesses.
Contents [hide]
1 Characteristics
Thursday, July 4, 2013
Irish Beer Stein Personalized Gifts For Him Novelities Barware Wedding
Irish Beer Stein Personalized Gifts For Him Novelities Barware Wedding
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Wednesday, July 3, 2013
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Tuesday, July 2, 2013
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- Vitamins & Nutrition Type : Vitamins
- Formula : Tablets
Nuun All Day Hydration- Natural Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs Mixed 4-pack Grape Raspberry, Blueberry Pomegranate, Tangerine Lime, Grapefruit Orange,Nuun All Day Hydration Blueberry Pomegranate drink tabs are a perfect way to stay hydrated throughout the day. Hydration plays an elemental role in staying healthy ,This mixed 4-pack of NUUN All Day hydration tablets is the perfect way to stay hydrated throughout the day, whether youre at work or in the mountains.,Free Shipping - NUUN All Day Hydration tablets help you stay hydrated on everyday adventures by boosting the flavor of your water and giving you a healthy dose of ,Grapefruit Orange. add to cart : Tangerine Lime add to cart : Mixed 4 Pack Nuun; Nuun All Day; U Hydration; Apparel and Accessories : Blueberry Pomegranate. 1.,Nuun All Day Hydration Grapefruit Orange drink tablets are a perfect way to stay Each tube contains 15 tablets. Each tablet makes 16 ounces of Nuun All Day ,Stay hydrated All Day long with 4 great tasting flavors, nuun All Day GRAPEFRUIT ORANGE : Our Price: $6.49 Zym Electrolyte Tablets FLAVOR CHOICE 8-tubes,Posted on November 16, 1 Nuun All Day Grapefruit Orange tablet dissolved in 2 oz of water; Dissolve 2 tablets of any Nuun All Day flavor into 8 ounces of water.,Nuun Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs Grapefruit Orange - 15 Tablets Nuun Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs perfect way stay hydrated throughout day.,Nuun All Day comes in 4 flavors: Grapefruit Orange, (16 ounce drink): and Nuun All Day are gluten-free and processed in manufacturing facilities free of wheat.
Nuun | Optimal Hydration
Nuun All Day comes in 4 flavors: Grapefruit Orange, (16 ounce drink): and Nuun All Day are gluten-free and processed in manufacturing facilities free of wheat.
Nuun - All Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs ...
Nuun Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs Grapefruit Orange - 15 Tablets Nuun Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs perfect way stay hydrated throughout day.
All Day | Nuun Blog - Nuun | Optimal Hydration
Posted on November 16, 1 Nuun All Day Grapefruit Orange tablet dissolved in 2 oz of water; Dissolve 2 tablets of any Nuun All Day flavor into 8 ounces of water.
nuun All Day GRAPEFRUIT ORANGE
Stay hydrated All Day long with 4 great tasting flavors, nuun All Day GRAPEFRUIT ORANGE : Our Price: $6.49 Zym Electrolyte Tablets FLAVOR CHOICE 8-tubes
Nuun Hydration, Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs, All Day ...
Nuun All Day Hydration Grapefruit Orange drink tablets are a perfect way to stay Each tube contains 15 tablets. Each tablet makes 16 ounces of Nuun All Day
Nuun All Day Hydration - Shop
Grapefruit Orange. add to cart : Tangerine Lime add to cart : Mixed 4 Pack Nuun; Nuun All Day; U Hydration; Apparel and Accessories : Blueberry Pomegranate. 1.
NUUN All Day Hydration Tablets - 15 Servings - Free Shipping ...
Free Shipping - NUUN All Day Hydration tablets help you stay hydrated on everyday adventures by boosting the flavor of your water and giving you a healthy dose of
NUUN All Day Hydration Tablets - Mixed 4 Pack | Keen Shopping
This mixed 4-pack of NUUN All Day hydration tablets is the perfect way to stay hydrated throughout the day, whether youre at work or in the mountains.
Nuun Hydration Tablets All Day Grapefruit Case of 8 16 Tablets
Nuun All Day Hydration Blueberry Pomegranate drink tabs are a perfect way to stay hydrated throughout the day. Hydration plays an elemental role in staying healthy
Electrolyte Drink Mix: Cut price Nuun 4PKADMIX B0088VLJFS Last ...
Nuun All Day Hydration- Natural Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs Mixed 4-pack Grape Raspberry, Blueberry Pomegranate, Tangerine Lime, Grapefruit Orange
Nuun All Day comes in 4 flavors: Grapefruit Orange, (16 ounce drink): and Nuun All Day are gluten-free and processed in manufacturing facilities free of wheat.
Nuun - All Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs ...
Nuun Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs Grapefruit Orange - 15 Tablets Nuun Day Hydration Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs perfect way stay hydrated throughout day.
All Day | Nuun Blog - Nuun | Optimal Hydration
Posted on November 16, 1 Nuun All Day Grapefruit Orange tablet dissolved in 2 oz of water; Dissolve 2 tablets of any Nuun All Day flavor into 8 ounces of water.
nuun All Day GRAPEFRUIT ORANGE
Stay hydrated All Day long with 4 great tasting flavors, nuun All Day GRAPEFRUIT ORANGE : Our Price: $6.49 Zym Electrolyte Tablets FLAVOR CHOICE 8-tubes
Nuun Hydration, Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs, All Day ...
Nuun All Day Hydration Grapefruit Orange drink tablets are a perfect way to stay Each tube contains 15 tablets. Each tablet makes 16 ounces of Nuun All Day
Nuun All Day Hydration - Shop
Grapefruit Orange. add to cart : Tangerine Lime add to cart : Mixed 4 Pack Nuun; Nuun All Day; U Hydration; Apparel and Accessories : Blueberry Pomegranate. 1.
NUUN All Day Hydration Tablets - 15 Servings - Free Shipping ...
Free Shipping - NUUN All Day Hydration tablets help you stay hydrated on everyday adventures by boosting the flavor of your water and giving you a healthy dose of
NUUN All Day Hydration Tablets - Mixed 4 Pack | Keen Shopping
This mixed 4-pack of NUUN All Day hydration tablets is the perfect way to stay hydrated throughout the day, whether youre at work or in the mountains.
Nuun Hydration Tablets All Day Grapefruit Case of 8 16 Tablets
Nuun All Day Hydration Blueberry Pomegranate drink tabs are a perfect way to stay hydrated throughout the day. Hydration plays an elemental role in staying healthy
Electrolyte Drink Mix: Cut price Nuun 4PKADMIX B0088VLJFS Last ...
Nuun All Day Hydration- Natural Vitamin Enhanced Drink Tabs Mixed 4-pack Grape Raspberry, Blueberry Pomegranate, Tangerine Lime, Grapefruit Orange
