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 on the other hand, was annexed by force of arms in 1598 by Pope Clement VIII, on grounds of the heir's illegitimacy, and incorporated into the Papal States.
The last duke, Ercole III, was deposed in 1796 by the French and his two duchies became the Cispadane Republic which one year later was merged into the Cisalpine Republic and then into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Ercole was compensated in 1801 with the small principality of Breisgau in southwestern Germany, whose previous rulers, the Habsburgs, ceded it to him in anticipation of its eventual return to the Habsburgs, since Ercole's daughter Maria Beatrice Ricciarda d'Este was married to a cadet Habsburg, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este. Ercole died in 1803 and Breisgau passed to his daughter and her husband, who then (1806) lost it during the Napoleonic reorganization of the western territories of the defunct Holy Roman Empire to the enlarged and elevated Grand Duchy of Baden.

Castello Estense in Ferrara



Ducal Palace in Modena, built in 1634 by Francesco I. d’Este

Austria-Este and the House of Habsburg[edit]

Main article: Austria-Este
In 1814, when French rule in Italy ended (but after the death of Duke Ercole), Modena was returned to his daughter Mary Beatrice and her son, Archduke Francis of Austria-Este. The family thus ruled the duchy of Modena and Reggio again from 1814 to 1859, using the names Asburgo-Este (Habsburg-Este) and Austria-Este. In 1859 the duchy lost its independence to the new united Italy, and Francis V, Duke of Modena, was deposed.


Ercole III was the last Este duke of Modena and Reggio.
The family of Austria-Este became extinct in the male line with the death of Francis V in 1875. His blood-heiress was his niece, Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria-Este (d. 1919); she and her husband, Prince Louis of Bavaria, later became Queen and KChamber of commerce
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  (Redirected from Chamber of Commerce)
This article is about trade organisations globally. For the American business lobbying organization, see United States Chamber of Commerce.

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Former Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York
A chamber of commerce (also referred to in some circles as a board of trade) is a form of business network, e.g., a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to advocate on behalf of the business community. Local businesses are members, and they elect a board of directors or executive council to set policy for the chamber. The board or council then hires a President, CEO or Executive Director, plus staffing appropriate to size, to run the organization.
The first chamber of commerce was founded in 1599 in Marseille, France.[1][2][3][4] It would be followed 65 years later by another official chamber of commerce, probably in Brugge, then part of the Spanish Netherlands.[5]
The world's oldest English-speaking chamber of commerce is that of New York City, which was established in 1768.[6] The oldest known existing chamber in the English-speaking world with continuous records is the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce,[7] which was founded in 1783. However, Hull Chamber of Commerce[8] is the UK's oldest, followed by Leeds and Belfast, Northern Ireland.[citation needed]
A chamber of commerce is not a governmental body or institution, and has no direct role in the writing and passage of laws and regulations that affect businesses. It may however, act as a lobby in an attempt to get laws passed that are favorable to businesses.
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1 Characteristics